The Eye of the Cyclone at the Fall of the XVIII^th Century:  The Ill-Fated Helvetic Republic (1798-1803)

By Dr. Gabriel Vital-Durand

The Strategic Situation in Central Europe and Italy in 1799

The ancient Reich (Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation) had survived largely unchanged since the Middle Ages. There were more than 300 principalties, each with their denomination (« cujus regio, ejus religio »), their currency, their legal, and metric system. The French Republic had seized the left bank of the Rhine for sake of “geographic rationality”. The kingdoms of Hanover, Prussia and Saxony had all withdrawn from the coalition due to military failures, while the Grand-Duchy of Bavaria had felt inclined towards its arch-enemy Austria in consideration of the new threat. The 2^nd Coalition thus appeared formidable in the face of a French army stretched from Friesland to Sicily, aligning some 180,000 troops against more than 300,000 combined forces.

Capture of Naples by French forces in January, 1799

Further south, the French Republic had taken control of much of the Italian Peninsula at the Campo Formio Treaty (18 October 1797). The 1^st Campaign of Italy (1796-97) conducted by General Bonaparte had given birth to the Cisalpinian Republic formed around Milan, another sister-republic with a triple-tripped banner (green, white and red). The young Henri Beyle – better known as Stendhal – then an officer in the French army would later recall:

“The army set up by Bonaparte had managed to bring together the sombre Novarian and the light-hearted Venitian, the citizen of Reggio and the good Buseccone from Milan. It produced two results: the creation of a new language and the disappearance of the hatred among cities as well as the petty patriotism.

A the same time, Army of Rome was formed under General Berthier, soon succeded by Championnet. Pope Pius VI fled and a Roman Republic was established on 15 February 1798. King Ferdinand IV of Naples was reluctant to resist the French since his army had performed poorly during the previous coalition. However the pressure exercised by Emperor Francis II of Austria, his brother-in-law, and Rear-Admiral Nelson who was a frequent visitor, in the end overcame his resistance and the Neapolitan army under Austrian General Mack had a go at fighting near Civita Castellana on 5 December 1798, only to retreat and ultimately dissolve. General Championnet entered Naples on 23 January 1799 and a so-called Parthenopean Republic was instated. The King, together with Queen Maria-Carolina – a former archduchess of Austria and a sister of Marie-Antoinette, the former queen of France, Sir Francis Acton their English minister, and the court had just escaped to Sicily with the assistance of Admiral Nelson and the Royal Navy. Nelson was most affectionated with Lady Emma Hamilton, the beautiful British ambassadress, although he was not really an Adonis, having lost both his arm and his eye in battle.

The Royal Navy anchored in sight of Naples (Summer 1799

It was the third time in history that a French expeditionary force had conquered Naples, after Charles of Anjou in 1266 and Charles VIII of France in 1495. Alas, the newly-formed government was less than united, and typical Mediterranean quarrelling was soon to rage, with a so-called San-fedist reaction taking place in the country, led by clerics like Fra Diavolo (sic) and General-Cardinal Ruffo. Meanwhile the situation in Northern Italy had deteriorated for the French and General Macdonald, now in charge, was soon to accept the terms of a withdrawal on 7 May 1799. A sad episode was then to occur. Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, Duke of Brienza, a former companion of Admiral Nelson in the Royal Navy, had been enrolled on the side of the Republicans. Nelson had him tried inspite of the peace agreement, and actually hanged at the mast of his own ship, the Minerva (29 June 1799)

Russian troops in action (1799?)

At the same time, a new Austrian army under Field-Marshal Kray came close to the French settlements in Lombardia under command of General Schérer. In addition, a Russian expeditionnary force made of Cossaks and other elite-troops had been brought across Europe by Field-Marshal Souvorov, an seasoned commander who had gained his fame at the time of Tsarina Catherine II. The French under Generals Serurier, Genier and Victor had taken fortified positions on the Adda River towards Venice. By late April, Souvorov crossed the river, conquered Milan, crushed the positions of Moreau at Cassano and had Sérurier surrender. The Russians entered Turin on 26 May 1799.

Further South, General Macdonald had been called from Naples to Florence where he arrived on 26 May. His army arrived in time to rescue the fortress of Mantua bessieged by Austrian Field-Marshal Melas and actually repelled the Austrians at Modena and Piasanca. General Suvorov was prompt to react. A long and difficult struggle was engaged on the Trebbia River, to the ultimate benefit of the Russians (17-19 June 1799). General Macdonald managed to conduct a successful retreat through Via Aurelia towards Genoa.

On 5 July, General Joubert who was pictured as a new Bonaparte (he was 30 years old) was named to succeed Moreau as commander-in-chief. He would rely on the yet unscathed Army of the Alps under General Bernadotte, although the fortress of Mantua would fall on 17 July, leaving little more than Genoa and Liguria as French strongholds. General Joubert, realising the situation was worsening quickly, rushed down the Po River towards the Austro-Russians. Both parties set to dig retrenchments at Novi. The battle started on 15 August, and Joubert was among the first killed. General Moreau took over and ordered retreat towards Genoa. Generals Pérignon, Grouchy, and Colli had been wounded and taken prisoners. Genral Suvorov was promoted field-marshal and Prince of Italia (Knyaz Italiyski ) by Tsar Paul I.

Meanwhile, a naval force combining Russian and Ottoman ships had conquered the Ionian Islands from the French and the Royal Navy set siege before Valetta in Malta, then in French hands as well.

Hence the scene was set for Field-Marshal Suvorov to course the retreating French across the Alps and contemplate invading the South of France. Heads of states would actually see to it that the wheel of fortune turn into a different direction. British funding was essential to the conduct of military business. To the London cabinet, developments in the Low Countries were of primary importance. And there an expeditionary force under the Duke of York was facing stiff resistance on the part of General Brune. One may also speculate that the perspective of Tsar Paul I getting a close hand into West European affairs as a result of Russian military successes was all but welcome by British and Austrian governments alike. Whatever the case, the Aulic Council in Vienna issued an order to Suvorov that he moved back to Ticino through the Saint Gothard Pass in order to support General Rimsky-Korsakov in Northern Switzerland (mid-September 1799).

Although such move might have appear feasible on the map, crossing a distance of ca. 500 km so late in the year, with an army exhausted by a long and difficult campaign, and having to cross a pass at 2,000 metres under enemy fire was anything but an easy assignment.

Placed on the Napoleon Series: January 2004

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